Introduction

GRI 14: Mining Sector 2024 provides information for organizations involved in mining activities about their likely material topics. These topics are likely to be material for mining organizations on the basis of the sector’s most significant impacts on the economy, environment, and people, including on their human rights.

GRI 14 also contains a list of disclosures for mining organizations to report in relation to each likely material topic. This includes disclosures from the GRI Topic Standards and other sources.

The Standard is structured as follows:

• Section 1 provides a high-level overview of the mining sector, including its activities, business relationships, context, and the connections between the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the likely material topics for the sector.
• Section 2 outlines the topics that are likely to be material for mining organizations and, therefore, potentially merit reporting. For each likely material topic, the sector’s most significant impacts are described and disclosures to report information about the organization’s impacts in relation to the topic are listed.
• The Glossary contains defined terms with specific meanings when used in the GRI Standards. The terms are underlined in the text and linked to the definitions.
• The Bibliography contains authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references used in developing this Standard, listed by topic. It also lists further resources that the organization can consult.

The rest of the Introduction section provides an overview of the sector this Standard applies to, an overview of the system of GRI Standards, and further information on using this Standard.

Sector this Standard applies to

GRI 14 applies to organizations undertaking any of the following:

• Exploration, extraction, including quarrying, and primary processing¹ of all types of minerals, metallic and non-metallic, except for oil, gas, and coal.²
• Support activities for mining, such as transport and storage, when integrated into the mining organization’s core operations.
• Supply of specialized products and services to mining organizations, such as those provided by contractors for Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC) and operational activities mentioned above.

This Standard can be used by any organization in the mining sector, regardless of size, type, geographic location, or reporting experience. The Standard is not designed to capture the impacts specific to the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector. However, this Standard does consider the impacts that mining organizations may have on ASM operators and the impacts they may be involved with through their business relationships, interactions, or co-location of their activities with ASM.³

The organization must use all applicable Sector Standards for the sectors in which it has substantial activities. 

Sector classifications

Table 1 lists industry groupings relevant to the mining sector covered in this Standard in the Global Industry Classification Standard (GICS®) [5], the Industry Classification Benchmark (ICB) [3], the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC) [7], and the Sustainable Industry Classification System (SICS®) [6].⁴ The table is intended to assist an organization in identifying whether GRI 14 applies to it and is for reference only.

Table 1. Industry groupings relevant to the mining sector in other classification systems

System of GRI Standards

This Standard is part of the GRI Sustainability Reporting Standards (GRI Standards). The GRI Standards enable an organization to report information about its most significant impacts on the economy, environment, and people, including impacts on their human rights, and how it manages these impacts.

The GRI Standards are structured as a system of interrelated standards that are organized into three series: GRI Universal Standards, GRI Sector Standards, and GRI Topic Standards (see Figure 1 in this Standard).

Universal Standards: GRI 1, GRI 2 and GRI 3
GRI 1: Foundation 2021 specifies the requirements that the organization must comply with to report in accordance with the GRI Standards. The organization begins using the GRI Standards by consulting GRI 1.

GRI 2: General Disclosures 2021 contains disclosures that the organization uses to provide information about its reporting practices and other organizational details, such as its activities, governance, and policies.

GRI 3: Material Topics 2021 provides guidance on how to determine material topics. It also contains disclosures that the organization uses to report information about its process of determining material topics, its list of material topics, and how it manages each topic.

Sector Standards
The Sector Standards provide information for organizations about their likely material topics. The organization uses the Sector Standards that apply to its sectors when determining its material topics and when determining what to report for each material topic.

Topic Standards
The Topic Standards contain disclosures that the organization uses to report information about its impacts in relation to particular topics. The organization uses the Topic Standards according to the list of material topics it has determined using GRI 3.

Using this Standard

An organization in the mining sector reporting in accordance with the GRI Standards is required to use this Standard when determining its material topics and then when determining what information to report for the material topics.

Determining material topics
Material topics represent an organization's most significant impacts on the economy, environment, and people, including their human rights. 

Section 1 of this Standard provides contextual information that can help the organization in identifying and assessing its impacts.

Section 2 outlines the topics that are likely to be material for organizations in the mining sector. The organization is required to review each topic described and determine whether it is a material topic for it.

The organization needs to use this Standard when determining its material topics. However, circumstances for each organization vary, and the organization needs to determine its material topics according to its specific circumstances, such as its business model; geographic, cultural, and legal operating context; ownership structure; and the nature of its impacts. Because of this, not all topics listed in this Standard may be material for all organizations in the mining sector. See GRI 3: Material Topics 2021 for step-by-step guidance on how to determine material topics.

If the organization has determined any of the topics included in this Standard as not material, then the organization is required to list them in the GRI content index and explain why they are not material.

See Requirement 3 in GRI 1: Foundation 2021 and Box 5 in GRI 3 for more information on using Sector Standards to determine material topics.

Determining what to report
For each material topic, an organization reports information about its impacts and how it manages these impacts. Once an organization has determined a topic included in this Standard to be material, the Standard also helps the organization identify disclosures to report information about its impacts relating to that topic.

For each topic in section 2 of this Standard, a reporting sub-section is included. These sub-sections list disclosures from the GRI Topic Standards that are relevant to the topic. They may also list additional sector disclosures and recommendations for the organization to report. This is done in cases where the Topic Standards do not provide disclosures, or where the disclosures from the Topic Standards do not provide sufficient information about the organization’s impacts in relation to a topic. These additional sector disclosures and recommendations may be based on other sources. Figure 2 illustrates how the reporting included in each topic is structured.

The organization is required to report the disclosures from the Topic Standards listed for those topics it has determined to be material. If any of the Topic Standards disclosures listed are not relevant to the organization’s impacts, the organization is not required to report them. However, the organization is required to list these disclosures in the GRI content index and provide ‘not applicable’ as the reason for omission for not reporting the disclosures. See Requirement 6 in GRI 1: Foundation 2021 for more information on reasons for omission.

The additional sector disclosures and recommendations outline further information which has been identified as relevant for organizations in the mining sector to report in relation to a topic. The organization should provide sufficient information about its impacts in relation to each material topic, so that information users can make informed assessments and decisions about the organization. For this reason, reporting these additional sector disclosures and recommendations is encouraged, however it is not a requirement. When the organization reports additional sector disclosures, it is required to list them in the GRI content index (see Requirement 7 in GRI 1).

If the organization reports information that applies to more than one material topic, it does not need to repeat it for each topic. The organization can report this information once, with a clear explanation of all the topics it covers. If the organization intends to publish a standalone sustainability report, it does not need to repeat information that it has already reported publicly elsewhere, such as on web pages or in its annual report. In such a case, the organization can report on a required disclosure by providing a reference in the GRI content index as to where this information can be found (e.g., by providing a link to the web page or citing the page in the annual report where the information has been published).

See Requirement 5 in GRI 1 for more information on using Sector Standards to report disclosures.

GRI Sector Standard reference numbers
GRI Sector Standard reference numbers are included for all disclosures listed in this Standard, both those from GRI Standards and additional sector disclosures. When listing the disclosures from this Standard in the GRI content index, the organization is required to include the associated GRI Sector Standard reference numbers (see Requirement 7 in GRI 1: Foundation 2021). This identifier helps information users assess which of the disclosures listed in the applicable Sector Standards are included in the organization’s reporting.

Defined terms
Defined terms are underlined in the text of the GRI Standards and linked to their definitions in the Glossary. The organization is required to apply the definitions in the Glossary.

References and resources
The authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references used in developing this Standard, as well as further resources that may help report on likely material topics and can be consulted by the organization are listed in the Bibliography. These complement the references and resources listed in GRI 3: Material Topics 2021 and in the GRI Topic Standards.

Figure 2. Structure of reporting included in each topic

1. Sector profile

Minerals are essential for the functioning of modern societies and economies. They are used, for example, to make steel and other materials for infrastructure, critical components for transportation, communications, and technological solutions, and to create fertilizers for farming. Minerals are indispensable in the transition to a low-carbon economy and are used for renewable energy technologies, such as wind turbines, solar panels, and the manufacture of electric storage batteries. 

Minerals are divided into metallic and non-metallic minerals. Metallic minerals (or metals) can be classified by their properties or function. They comprise precious metals (e.g., gold, silver, platinum); ferrous metals (containing iron); non-ferrous metals (e.g., aluminum, cobalt, copper, lithium, uranium, zinc); and rare earth elements (e.g., neodymium, scandium, yttrium). Sand, stone, lime, potash, and diamonds are examples of non-metallic minerals. 

The capital-intensive mining sector represents a wide range of organizations. The sector includes large publicly listed companies often vertically integrated across the value chain, state-owned enterprises (SOEs), and small and medium-sized organizations known as 'junior companies', which often specialize in exploration. Organizations engaged in quarrying are typically less complex, with little or no processing requirements.

Sector activities and business relationships

Through their activities and business relationships, organizations can have an effect on the economy, environment, and people, and in turn make negative or positive contributions to sustainable development. When determining its material topics, the organization should consider the impacts of both its activities and its business relationships. 

Activities
The impacts of an organization vary according to the types of activities it undertakes. The following list outlines some of the key activities of the mining sector, as defined in this Standard. This list is not exhaustive.  

Prospecting and exploration: Surveying of resources, including feasibility assessments, geologic mapping, aerial photography, geophysical measuring, and exploration drilling.  

Development: Design, planning, and construction of mines, access roads, and facilities for processing, waste management, and workers. 

Mining operations: Extraction of ores and minerals from the earth using different techniques, such as surface mining, placer mining, underground mining, or in situ techniques, as well as primary processing to separate commercially valuable minerals from their ores. This phase also includes the disposal of waste and management of tailings facilities.  

Closure and rehabilitation: Decommissioning of processing facilities, land reclamation, restoration, and rehabilitation in line with post-closure objectives, as well as closing and capping waste facilities and associated infrastructure.  

Transportation: Moving minerals and waste to the point of storage, consumption, or further processing by, for example, barge, conveyor belt, train, truck, or ship, or transported as slurry by pipeline. 

Storage: Storage of minerals at mine sites or import and export terminals. 

Sales and marketing: Selling minerals, for example, for iron and steel production, cement production, and use in manufacturing. 

Business relationships
An organization’s business relationships include those with business partners, entities in its value chain including those beyond the first tier, and any other entities directly linked to the organization’s operations, products, or services. The following types of business relationships are prevalent in the mining sector and relevant for identifying the impacts of organizations in the sector. 

Joint ventures are common arrangements in mining in which organizations share the costs, benefits, and liabilities of assets or a project. They can also include partnerships with SOEs. An organization in the mining sector can be involved with negative impacts as a result of participating in a joint venture, even if it is a non-operating partner. 

Suppliers represent a significant share of spending by mine site and are commonly used to perform mining operations or to provide products or services, including security. Some of the most significant impacts covered in this Standard concern the supply chain. 

Customers and other parties in the value chain are increasingly voicing expectations for supply chain traceability to ensure the responsible production of minerals. They, therefore, constitute a key driver of transparency in the sector. 

The sector and sustainable development

The mining sector plays an important role in many national economies and can make significant contributions to the economic development of regions and countries. Low- and middle-income countries are most likely to rely on their natural resources as a primary driver of economic activity – a dependence that has grown steadily over the last few decades. In mining-dependent economies, responsible mining practices can lead to reductions in levels of poverty and overall improvements in social well-being. 

Financial flows around mining projects are substantial, deriving, for example, from taxes, royalties, and other payments to governments or spending on suppliers. Along with providing employment opportunities, particularly in the supply chain, the sector also invests in infrastructure and community development projects. Benefits like these can contribute to long-term development needs and priorities for rural areas and countries that have limited sources of additional revenue. These flows represent important benefit streams but can also give rise to corruption.  

Locating, extracting, and processing minerals entails complex scientific, environmental, and socioeconomic planning. The scale of mining projects can be significant, sometimes spanning vast areas and taking place over many decades. Government legislation, including environmental protections and tax regimes, set out by the countries where mining occurs largely regulate mining projects. If poorly managed, mining can create negative impacts with lasting implications for ecosystems, human rights, and the health, safety, and well-being of workers and local communities. Climate change brings additional challenges to managing the impacts of mining with consequences for water management, biodiversity, and extreme heat. Moreover, the decline of ore grades increases the amount of energy and resources needed by mining organizations to locate and extract minerals from rock, resulting in more pollution and waste generated [20]. 

Global demand for minerals is expected to increase due to continued economic growth, improved living standards, and the need to transition to a low-carbon economy. While minerals are essential to clean energy technologies that underpin global climate change mitigation goals, the sector is increasingly under scrutiny due to its contribution to GHG emissions and the need to reduce them in the value chain. The mining sector is also facing expectations to transition to renewable energy sources and implement circular economy principles, such as reusing and recycling existing materials. 

The drive to mine certain minerals needed for clean technologies has also raised concerns over risks of increased environmental and human rights impacts. When higher-grade ores and proven deposits are depleted, mining activities may be driven to more remote or ecologically sensitive areas, areas characterized by water stress or inhabited by Indigenous Peoples, or fragile, conflict-prone states. Additionally, land use, displacement, environmental impacts, and the economic potential associated with mineral extraction can inflame conflict. This can sometimes result in violence against or within local communities.

Sustainable Development Goals
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by the 193 United Nations (UN) member states, comprise the world’s comprehensive plan of action for achieving sustainable development [11].  

Since the SDGs and targets associated with them are integrated and indivisible, mining organizations have the potential to contribute to all SDGs by enhancing their positive impacts or by preventing and mitigating their negative impacts on the economy, environment, and people.  

The mining sector can contribute to achieving Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy and Goal 13: Climate Action by supplying critical minerals necessary for the low-carbon transition while mitigating GHG emissions through the use of renewable energy and energy efficiency measures.  

The sector has connections to Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation and Goal 15: Life on Land due to the impacts that water use and land use by mining organizations can have on local communities and the environment. 

The mining sector can make meaningful contributions to Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth and Goal 1: No Poverty because it provides an essential source of revenue and employment in many regions while also providing materials for other industries that drive economic growth. With proper management of environmental impacts and the continuing supply of materials that enable infrastructure development, the mining sector can contribute to Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities and Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production.  

Table 2 presents connections between the likely material topics for the mining sector and the SDGs. These links were identified based on an assessment of the impacts described in each likely material topic, the targets associated with each SDG, and existing mappings undertaken for the sector (see reference [32] in the Bibliography).  

Table 2 is not a reporting tool but presents connections between the mining sector’s significant impacts and the goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. See references [32] and [31] in the Bibliography for information on reporting progress towards the SDGs using the GRI Standards. 

Table 2. Links between the likely material topics for the mining sector and the SDGs

Topic 14.1 GHG emissions

Topic 14.2 Climate adaptation and resilience

Topic 14.3 Air emissions

Topic 14.4 Biodiversity

Topic 14.5 Waste

Topic 14.6 Tailings

Topic 14.7 Water and effluents

Topic 14.8 Closure and rehabilitation

Topic 14.9 Economic impacts

Topic 14.10 Local communities

Topic 14.11 Rights of Indigenous Peoples

Topic 14.12 Land and resource rights

Topic 14.13 Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM)

Topic 14.14 Security practices

Topic 14.15 Critical incident management

Topic 14.16 Occupational health and safety

Topic 14.17 Employment practices

Topic 14.18 Child labor

Topic 14.19 Forced labor and modern slavery

Topic 14.20 Freedom of association and collective bargaining

Topic 14.21 Non-discrimination and equal opportunity

Topic 14.22 Anti-corruption

Topic 14.23 Payments to governments

Topic 14.24 Public policy

Topic 14.25 Conflict-affected and high-risk areas

2. Likely material topics

This section comprises the likely material topics for the mining sector. Each topic describes the sector’s most significant impacts related to the topic and lists disclosures that have been identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by mining organizations. The organization is required to review each topic in this section and determine whether it is a material topic for the organization, and then to determine what information to report for its material topics. 

Mine-site disclosure

This disclosure applies to organizations that own or operate mine sites.⁵  

Mining activities have impacts that often manifest locally. Given that an organization’s operations may span diverse regions, environments, and jurisdictions, impacts can vary greatly depending on where activities occur. An organization should assess and report information about its impacts in relation to appropriate local contexts (see the Sustainability Context principle in GRI 1: Foundation 2021 for more information).  

Several topics in this Standard include mine-site-level reporting. Where impacts are highly significant for some mine sites and not others, organizations should provide site-level information about the sites where impacts are highly significant.  

In other cases, disaggregated data may be needed for all mine sites to allow information users to make accurate assessments about the organization's overall contributions to sustainable development. These include certain public interest topics, such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions or biodiversity, where the mining sector has considerable impacts globally. 

Organizations can proactively provide mine-site disaggregated data for any topic identified as material for reporting. 

Table 3 offers an example of how to present information for Disclosure 14.0.1. Organizations can use the table to indicate instances where impacts are highly significant for specific mine sites, and whether disaggregated data is provided for the site.

Table 3. Example template for presenting information on mine-site disclosure 
The table offers an example of how to present information for Disclosure 14.0.1. The organization can amend the table according to its practices, for example by reporting additional information.

Topic 14.1 GHG emissions

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions comprise air emissions that contribute to climate change. This topic covers direct (Scope 1) and energy indirect (Scope 2) GHG emissions related to an organization’s activities, as well as other indirect (Scope 3) GHG emissions that occur upstream and downstream of the organization’s activities.

Mining activities are energy-intensive and contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that cause climate change. Most GHG emissions from mining activities are associated with the use of fossil fuel-powered vehicles and the consumption of self-generated and purchased electricity. Therefore, most emissions in the mining sector are direct (Scope 1) GHG emissions from sources owned or controlled by the organization. Additionally, energy indirect (Scope 2) GHG emissions result from the generation of purchased or acquired electricity, heating, cooling, and steam consumed by the organization.

Energy-intensive processes and activities include excavation, mine operations, and material transfer. The primary GHG emitted through the sector’s activities is carbon dioxide (CO₂). Other GHGs include methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF₃). The amount of energy used at a mine and the resulting emissions depend on several factors, such as mining method, mine depth, geology, mine productivity, and the degree and method of processing required. For example, most of the energy needs of open pit mines are associated with extensive soil and rock movement and longer haul distances, while underground mines have greater pumping, ventilation, cooling, and hoisting-related energy requirements.

Beyond the total amount of energy used, the GHG emissions intensity of mining activities can vary according to mine design and planning, operational practices, and the energy source used. Coal as a fuel source has the highest emissions intensity compared to other fossil fuels, typically releasing more than twice the amount of GHGs than natural gas per unit of electricity produced.

GHG emissions can also increase due to a human-induced change in the use or management of lands, which may lead to a change in land cover. For instance, when forests are cleared to enable mineral extraction and the supporting infrastructure (see also topic 14.4 Biodiversity). Land use change emissions are more prevalent in surface mining due to the greater land use requirements and often lower-grade ores. Methane (CH₄) can also be released through extraction, venting, or as fugitive emissions. Closure activities can further contribute to GHG emissions. However, the rehabilitation of mine sites can be used to capture CO₂ with appropriate reclamation and post-reclamation strategies.

In addition to Scope 1 and Scope 2 GHG emissions, mining organizations are also under increasing scrutiny over other indirect (Scope 3) GHG emissions up and downstream from mining activities. There is a growing expectation for emissions reduction throughout the value chain. For organizations mining gold and other precious metals, the most substantial emissions tend to originate upstream from the organization, namely, from the goods and services they procure. Where minerals require extensive refining, such as smelting, most Scope 3 GHG emissions tend to originate in downstream processes, in particular where coal is used as an energy source. Examples include the manufacture of steel, aluminum, and cement.

To combat climate change, parties to the Paris Agreement have committed to transition to a low-carbon economy. Organizations in the sector are increasingly expected to set GHG emissions targets and reduce emissions in line with the latest scientific evidence on the global effort needed to limit global warming to 1.5° C [42] (see also topic 14.2 Climate adaptation and resilience). Scope 1 and Scope 2 GHG emissions can be reduced, for example, through energy efficiency measures, electrification of equipment, and switching to renewable or low-carbon fuel sources.

In some cases, emissions reduction initiatives such as the electrification of a mine may bring shared power to local communities and businesses. However, it can pose additional challenges to communities, including increased pressure on regional and national energy grids, energy supply disruptions, job losses, or new environmental challenges. Organizations can partner with governments to mitigate such impacts and invest in solutions such as developing renewable energy infrastructure to support mines and the post-mining transition. These efforts can contribute to equitable and just outcomes for workers and the community (see also topics 14.8 Closure and rehabilitation and 14.9 Economic impacts).

Reporting on GHG emissions

If the organization has determined GHG emissions to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.

References and resources

GRI 302: Energy 2016 and GRI 305: Emissions 2016 list authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on GHG emissions by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.2 Climate adaptation and resilience

Organizations contribute to climate change and are simultaneously affected by it. Climate adaptation and resilience refer to how an organization adjusts to current and anticipated climate change-related risks, as well as how it contributes to the ability of societies and economies to withstand impacts from climate change.

Across the value chain, mining activities contribute to climate change by releasing GHG emissions (see also topic 14.1 GHG emissions). Changing climatic conditions, rising sea levels, and increasing intensity and frequency of extreme weather events already affect every region of the globe, causing negative impacts on the health, livelihoods, and human rights of millions of people. Physical impacts also pose risks to the workers, suppliers, local communities, and infrastructure, including transportation routes linked or adjacent to mining activities.

Climate change has been found to aggravate the impacts of mining on the local environment, disrupting biodiversity (see also topic 14.4 Biodiversity), affecting water quality and quantity, and exacerbating water stress (see also topic 14.7 Water and effluents). Climate change also heightens the risks of tailings storage facility failures due to increased rainfall (see also topic 14.6 Tailings and 14.15 Critical incident management). Rising temperatures can have negative impacts on air quality through the retention of particulate matter, which can exacerbate the impacts of air pollution (see also topic 14.3 Air emissions). In addition, climate change has the propensity to create drier climates where mining takes place, increasing the likelihood of dust events while diminishing the availability of water to suppress dust.

These impacts can have implications for the health, safety, well-being, and livelihoods of local communities and workers. They can also increase competition for natural resources, which often disproportionately affects women [70] (see also topic 14.10 Local communities). Mining organizations can help strengthen local communities' resilience to climate change-related impacts. Adaptation strategies can involve planning for post-mining land use, ensuring the availability of natural resources for agriculture, promoting climate-resilient economic growth, and long-term emergency planning. Organizations can also assist communities in obtaining reliable access to energy and water by, for example, establishing shared renewable energy infrastructure, implementing energy-saving programs, and sharing water resources.

The transition to a low-carbon economy is expected to increase demand for critical minerals needed for clean energy technologies, such as cobalt, copper, lithium, nickel, and rare earth elements. If managed well, this can present opportunities for mineral-rich countries through positive economic development (see also topic 14.9 Economic impacts). However, increased negative environmental and human rights impacts are recognized as a major risk. Many minerals that face rising demand are extracted from regions vulnerable to political instability, institutional weakness, and human rights violations. Mining in these areas can trigger or exacerbate conflict, corruption, environmental damage, and labor abuses (see also topic 14.25 Conflict-affected and high-risk areas).

Reporting on climate adaptation and resilience

If the organization has determined climate adaptation and resilience to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.  

References and resources

GRI 201: Economic Performance 2016 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on climate adaptation and resilience by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.3 Air emissions

Air emissions include pollutants that have negative impacts on air quality and ecosystems, including human and animal health. This topic covers impacts from emissions of sulfur oxides (SO_x), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), and heavy metals, such as mercury (Hg).

In addition to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, mining activities are a source of other anthropogenic air emissions classified as pollutants. Globally, air pollution causes acute health problems and millions of deaths annually by contributing to heart and lung diseases, strokes, respiratory infections, and neurological damage [90]. Air emissions are a major concern for the sector’s workers (see also topic 14.16 Occupational health and safety) and local communities adjacent to mine sites and transportation routes (see also topic 14.10 Local communities). These emissions disproportionately affect children, the elderly, and the poor [89]. Air emissions from mining activities can also have negative impacts on nearby ecosystems (see also topic 14.4 Biodiversity).

Mining activities release air emissions during drilling, blasting, excavation, overburden removal, storage, mineral processing, and transportation. Fugitive emissions can result from earthmoving, crushing, transportation, and pollutants from tailings facilities (see also topic 14.6 Tailings). These emissions mostly comprise dust and other particulate matter (PM). Depending on the mineral being mined, air emissions can also include heavy metals, carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxide (NO_x), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The severity of impacts from air emissions can depend on the proximity of local communities and workers, and the sensitivity of local ecosystems.

The extraction and smelting of zinc and other non-ferrous metals produce mercury gases, which lead to severe health impacts. Mercury (Hg) is frequently used in artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities, sometimes located adjacent to mining organization’s concessions (see also topic 14.13 Artisanal and small-scale mining). Many gold and silver operations and refineries use cyanide to extract the mineral from ore, which can under certain conditions volatilize into hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and cause respiratory hazards for workers.⁸

Nitrogen oxide emissions from transportation can have negative impacts on ecosystems. They can enter waterways and oceans, have negative impacts on marine life, and generate ground-level ozone (O₃) or smog. Sulfur oxides from burning fossil fuels and smelting mineral ores containing sulfur can lead to acid rain and contribute to ocean acidification. In addition to negative impacts on human health, acid rain, and smog can degrade water and soil quality, impairing the functions of natural environments and thereby affecting food chains.

Reporting on air emissions

If the organization has determined air emissions to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector. 

References and resources

GRI 305: Emissions 2016 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.

The additional references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on air emissions by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.4 Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms. It includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems. Biodiversity not only has intrinsic value, but is also vital to human health, food security, economic prosperity, and mitigation of climate change and adaptation to its impacts. This topic covers impacts on biodiversity, including on genetic diversity, animal and plant species, and natural ecosystems.

Mining activities typically require large-scale developments that have impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services. These impacts can limit the availability and accessibility of natural resources or degrade their quality. Impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services may also affect the well-being and livelihoods of local communities and Indigenous Peoples (see also topic 14.10 Local communities and 14.11 Rights of Indigenous Peoples).

Direct drivers of biodiversity loss influence biodiversity and ecosystem processes, leading to impacts such as degradation of ecosystems, habitat fragmentation, and animal mortality. Mining activities may contribute to the direct drivers of biodiversity loss through land and sea use change, for example, in the form of land clearance for mining, access routes, and waste management facilities; exploitation of natural resources by withdrawing and consuming water; through the introduction of invasive alien species; and pollution. Sources of air, water, and soil pollution can include:

• air emissions, including dust and fumes (see also topic 14.3 Air emissions);
• effluent discharges such as riverine tailings disposal (see also topic 14.7 Water and effluents);
• waste storage, disposal, and tailings facility failures (see also topics 14.5 Waste and 14.6 Tailings); and
• light, noise, and vibration.

Different mining methods present distinct impacts on biodiversity. Open-pit mines generate more severe impacts than underground mines due to the progressive deepening and widening of the mine site, increasing the affected areas over time. Open-pit mining is a prominent cause of deforestation, with nearly a third of all forests estimated to be affected by mining projects worldwide [110]. Removing carbon sinks and topsoil can also exacerbate GHG emissions (see also topic 14.1 GHG emissions), contributing to erosion and desertification. Underground mining, in turn, can have negative impacts resulting from ground subsidence and groundwater contamination.

Mining activities can have impacts on biodiversity beyond the mine site. These impacts can be more significant when mining occurs in or near ecologically sensitive areas. For example, mining activities can spread into ecological corridors and disrupt the functioning of an ecologically sensitive area. Inactive mine pits, underground workings, and hazardous waste can also cause biodiversity impacts beyond closure (see also topic 14.8 Closure and rehabilitation).

The increasing demand for minerals drives mining activities to ecologically sensitive areas, including previously undeveloped locations and marine ecosystems (see also topic 14.2 Climate adaptation and resilience). While the potential impacts of deep-sea mining are not fully understood, it is likely to disrupt marine ecosystems, compact or alter seafloor areas, create sediment plumes, and pose a risk of leaks, accidents, and spills on fragile habitats [105].

To limit and manage impacts on biodiversity, many mining organizations use the mitigation hierarchy tool to help inform their actions to balance or outweigh negative impacts on biodiversity [103]. The mitigation hierarchy follows avoidance, minimization, restoration, rehabilitation, and offset. Actions to avoid negative impacts are prioritized, as is minimizing those impacts when avoidance is not possible. Restoration and rehabilitation measures should be implemented when negative impacts cannot be avoided or minimized. Offsetting measures may be applied to residual negative impacts after all other measures have been applied.

Reporting on biodiversity

If the organization has determined biodiversity to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.  

References and resources

GRI 101: Biodiversity 2024 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on biodiversity by the mining sector, are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.5 Waste

Waste refers to anything that a holder discards, intends to discard, or is required to discard. When inadequately managed, waste can have negative impacts on the environment and human health, which can extend beyond the locations where waste is generated and discarded. This topic covers impacts from waste and the management of waste.

Mining activities typically generate high volumes of waste, including hazardous waste. The largest waste streams derive from the extraction or processing of minerals and comprise overburden, rock waste, and tailings. These waste streams can contain toxic and naturally occurring heavy metals and minerals mobilized by mining, such as asbestos and antimony, aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, and thallium.

Waste from mining activities may contaminate surface water, groundwater, and seawater (see also topic 14.7 Water and effluents), as well as food sources. Waste also has negative impacts on human health (see also topic 14.10 Local communities) and animal and plant species (see also topic 14.4 Biodiversity). Land use for waste storage, along with soil contamination, leads to erosion and loss of productive land, which can further have effects on local communities’ livelihoods. The waste impacts from mining activities can depend on an organization’s approach to waste management, regulations, application of technologies, and the availability of recovery and disposal facilities near mine sites.

Mining activities often require using and storing hazardous materials, such as chemicals, for mineral processing. These materials can be released into the environment during exploration, extraction, processing, and transport. Hazardous materials can accumulate and remain in the environment beyond the life of a mine. There are specific concerns regarding the use of cyanide in processing minerals such as gold and silver, which, when improperly used, stored, or disposed of, can have negative impacts on human health and the environment (see also topic 14.15 Critical incident management). Mercury can be produced as a by-product when processing ores, potentially releasing toxic vapors. While most mining organizations no longer use mercury to extract gold, it is still used by many artisanal and small-scale operators (see also topic 14.13 Artisanal and small-scale mining).

Overburden from surface mining is usually stored in overburden emplacement facilities or dumps on adjacent land until the pit is backfilled or the overburden dump is stabilized and revegetated. These dumps require physical and chemical stabilization to avoid failures, which can have impacts on the environment and the safety of people. Overburden can also contribute to the formation of highly acidic water rich in heavy metals, known as acid mine drainage, which can seep into the environment.

Rock waste is usually managed in heaps or disposed of in waste rock dumps or former open-pit operations and can generate dust (see also topic 14.3 Air emissions). Tailings, a by-product of the processing of minerals, are often treated and discarded into ponds, filtered, stored in heaps, or disposed of in underground voids. Runoff from tailings and tailings facility failures can cause widespread environmental contamination and pose risks to the health, safety, and livelihoods of local communities (see also topic 14.6 Tailings).

The amount of waste produced by mining activities depends on the type of mineral extracted and the ore grade. Generally, surface mining produces more waste than underground mining due to the possibility of obtaining lower-grade sediments and rocks from which the mineral is extracted. Waste from mining activities often requires management beyond the productive phase of a mining operation, including long-term aftercare. Closure can also yield significant waste, for example, from decommissioned processing plants and other facilities (see also topic 14.8 Closure and rehabilitation).

Typical waste generated by mining operations comprises oils, chemicals, tires, e-waste, used catalysts, solvents, various industrial byproducts, packaging materials, and construction debris. Mining organizations may also need to manage substantial domestic waste at mine camps or in dedicated mining towns.

Reporting on waste

If the organization has determined waste to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.  

References and resources

GRI 306: Waste 2020 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on waste by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.6 Tailings

Tailings are a by-product of mining that need management throughout the life of a mine and beyond closure. Poor design or management of tailings facilities can, at worst, lead to catastrophic failures with lasting impacts on workers, local communities, and damage to the environment, natural resources, and infrastructure.

Tailings are generated as a by-product of mining and are usually one of the largest waste streams related to mining operations (see also topic 14.5 Waste). Often contained in the form of liquid slurry, tailings consist of processed material usually mixed with chemicals left over when separating minerals from rock or soil.

Tailings are often treated and stored in surface tailings facilities, filtered and dry-stacked, or used to fill underground voids. Surface tailings are contained by dams or disposed into decommissioned open pits and can cover vast areas. Other disposal methods, such as riverine, lake, and submarine tailings disposal, are still in use by the sector. However, these methods are widely discouraged due to the significant potential impacts on the environment and health of local communities from, for example, elevated levels of metals present in tailings (see also topic 14.10 Local communities).

Tailings containing heavy metals, cyanide, chemical-processing agents, or sulfides can pose a health risk when released into the environment. Catastrophic failures of tailings facilities, including dams, can pose detrimental risks to the safety and well-being of workers and local communities. At worst, failures can lead to loss of life and the destruction of whole communities (see also topic 14.15 Critical incident management). Further impacts include damage to infrastructure, natural resources, and the activities of other sectors, ultimately disrupting lives and livelihoods. Failures of tailings facilities result from, for example, inadequate water management, overtopping, foundation or drainage failure, erosion, and earthquakes. Extreme weather events due to climate change pose additional challenges to the long-term management of tailings (see also topic 14.2 Climate adaptation and resilience).

Runoff from tailings can contaminate groundwater, surface water, and seawater. Contaminated water sources cause damage to ecosystems, species, and agricultural operations, affecting local communities’ health and livelihoods (see also topic 14.7 Water and effluents). Dry tailings can also generate dust (see also topic 14.3 Air emissions). Inefficient processing of metal ores can spur re-encroachment and re-mining of tailings by artisanal and small-scale operators, which can mobilize toxic tailings into the environment (see also topic 14.13 Artisanal and small-scale mining).

Tailings management and storage options depend on and can be altered by various factors. These factors can include the presence of local communities, distance to areas of biodiversity importance, seismicity, the amount and seasonal distribution of rainfall, and local topography. Based on its context, each facility requires unique design and technical considerations to minimize risks to people and the environment throughout the tailings facility lifecycle, including closure and post-closure (see also topic 14.8 Closure and rehabilitation). The design is expected to be monitored, evaluated, and updated regularly, according to findings from reviews, risk assessments, and whenever there are material changes [134].

Organizations utilize site-specific plans on emergency preparedness and response to identify hazards, prepare for and assess their capacity to respond to emergencies, and anticipate long-term remediation. Alongside regular testing and updates, the plan requires active involvement with various stakeholders who could be affected, such as workers and local communities. This includes collaboration with public sector agencies, first responders, local authorities, and institutions to mitigate the potential repercussions of a failure.

Reporting on tailings

If the organization has determined tailings to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector. 

References and resources

The authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on tailings by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.7 Water and effluents

Recognized as a human right, access to fresh water is essential for human life and well-being. The amount of water withdrawn and consumed by an organization and the quality of its discharges can have impacts on ecosystems and people. This topic covers impacts related to the withdrawal and consumption of water and the quality of water discharged.

Mining can have significant impacts on water availability and quality, resulting in long-term consequences on biodiversity, human health and development, and food security (see also topics 14.4 Biodiversity, 14.10 Local communities, and 14.11 Rights of Indigenous Peoples). Impacts on water occur throughout the life of a mine and beyond closure.

Mining organizations use water throughout their operations, including mineral extraction, processing, cooling, dust suppression, and the transportation of ore and waste in slurries. Mining activities can reduce water availability for local communities and other water users, potentially affecting people’s right to clean drinking water. In areas where water is collected manually, reduced access to water can have disproportionate impacts on women and girls, who are typically responsible for this task [141].

The amount of water needed for mining operations depends on operational efficiency and mining methods. The total volume of freshwater withdrawn for mining operations can also vary according to an organization’s ability to substitute freshwater, the quality of water required, characteristics of local water resources, and recycling infrastructure.

Mining organizations can improve local communities’ access to freshwater by bolstering water and sanitation infrastructure and improving water quality, for example, by treating naturally occurring acid rock drainage. Mining organizations can also influence hydrology and have impacts on the livelihoods of local communities by altering groundwater levels, shifting river flow regimes, and using dams for freshwater needs in mining activities. In areas already facing water stress, mining operations can aggravate the problem by reducing water accessibility for other users and intensifying competition for water. These impacts can exacerbate tensions between and within other sectors or local communities, especially in cases where water rights and regulations are poorly managed or enforced.

The impacts of mining activities on the quality of surface water, groundwater, and seawater can be due to water discharge and runoff, heavy metal contamination, spills, leaks or leaching of chemicals, and the failure of tailings facilities (see also topic 14.5 Waste and 14.6 Tailings). Acid mine drainage can be one of the most significant water impacts from metal mines, occurring when water and oxygen react with rocks containing sulfur-bearing minerals, forming an acidic runoff. Underground operations might also disrupt or contaminate aquifers.

Contamination risks can be higher when mining occurs in areas with frequent heavy rainfall events, which can cause flooding and make the containment of effluents more challenging. The level of water treatment and water quality standards applied to effluent discharges, as well as the sensitivity of the local ecosystem, can affect the impact that mining organizations have on the receiving waterbody.

Droughts, floods, and other extreme weather events due to climate change pose more frequent challenges to water availability and quality (see also topic 14.2 Climate adaptation and resilience), requiring collaborative approaches by the mining sector to prevent or mitigate impacts on local communities [153].

Reporting on water and effluents

If the organization has determined water and effluents to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.  

References and resources

GRI 303: Water and Effluents 2018 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on water and effluents by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.8 Closure and rehabilitation

At the end of commercial use, organizations are expected to close assets and facilities and rehabilitate operational sites. Impacts can occur during and after closure. This topic covers an organization’s approach to closure and rehabilitation, including how the organization considers the impacts on the environment, local communities, and workers.

The aim of closure is to return land disturbed by mining to a physically, biologically, and chemically stable condition. When implemented successfully, it enables ecosystem restoration, minimizes long-term pollution, protects local water supplies, ensures public safety, and provides communities with productive land wherever possible. This process is expected to result in a healthy and functioning ecosystem that is compatible with planned post-mining land use, compliant with regulatory requirements, and considerate of the needs and livelihoods of local stakeholders. Closure planning should start at the project design phase and be updated regularly throughout the mine lifecycle. This can help mitigate impacts on the environment and people while integrating opportunities for reclamation concurrent with mining operations.

When not managed adequately, the closure of a mine can result in various environmental impacts, including the contamination of surface water and groundwater, soil contamination from overburden heaps, changes to landforms, and disturbance to biodiversity (see also topics 14.4 Biodiversity, 14.5 Waste, and 14.7 Water and effluents). The presence of, or contamination by, hazardous materials can result in long-lasting health and safety impacts on people (see also topic 14.10 Local communities). Failure to rehabilitate sites can also render land unsuitable for other productive purposes, such as agriculture, leading to the potential loss of livelihoods.

Closure activities can include:

• stabilization of open-pit or underground workings to prevent subsidence and erosion of mine-pit benches;
• decommissioning of processing facilities, equipment, and other infrastructure;
• removal of workers’ facilities and camps;
• land reclamation and rehabilitation, including management of topsoil, waste rock stockpiles, and overburden heaps to control erosion and land degradation, and foster ecosystem restoration;
• closing and sealing waste, including tailings, facilities (see also topic 14.6 Tailings);
• post-closure environmental and socioeconomic monitoring to ensure that post-closure objectives are being achieved; and
• remediation actions identified through monitoring activities.

Mining organizations can implement closure and rehabilitation activities progressively during the operating life of the mine by, for example, backfilling and revegetating unused areas as operations move to other zones.

Although closure and rehabilitation may offer new employment opportunities, cessation of mining operations also leads to unemployment when workers are no longer essential. When a mine closes, it can also result in job losses for the mine's suppliers. In locations where the mine has been the primary economic driver by providing employment, income, tax revenue, community development, and other benefits, closure can leave local communities to face economic downturns and social disruption.

The impacts of mine closure can be exacerbated if there is insufficient notice or inadequate planning for economic revitalization and social transition. Closed or abandoned mine sites can leave a long-lasting legacy of environmental issues and financial burdens for communities and governments, unless there are assigned responsible parties or allocated funds to cover the costs of mine closure and post-closure activities (see also topic 14.9 Economic impacts).

Mining organizations can collaborate with local communities, governments, unions, and workers to mitigate negative impacts and work towards a sustainable post-mining economy. This can be done by, for example, reskilling and retraining workers, offering worker transfer programs and relocation assistance programs (see also topic 14.17 Employment practices), and consulting communities, including women, on closure plans (see also topic 14.10 Local communities). Closure planning often starts in the early phases of a mine’s life cycle, becoming more detailed and responsive as the closure date approaches.

Many jurisdictions require organizations to make financial provisions, or assurances, for long-term costs associated with mine closure and rehabilitation when developing closure plans. These assurances are intended to cover the total estimated cost of closure activities and post-closure monitoring to account for social and environmental legacy impacts that can occur after closure [157].

Assurances can be in the form of various financial instruments, such as cash deposits, bank guarantees, surety bonds, trust funds, or other third-party-held assets, all designed to ensure the fulfillment of closure obligations. Organizations can conduct periodic reviews and update costs to account for operational changes during the life of a mine and their effect on the cost of closure. However, closure costs are often misunderstood, poorly regulated, or underestimated, resulting in insufficient financial assurances to cover the actual closure costs. Providing transparency over these provisions can improve the relationship between mining organizations and stakeholders, including governments.

Reporting on closure and rehabilitation

If the organization has determined closure and rehabilitation to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.  

References and resources

GRI 402: Labor/Management Relations 2016 and GRI 404: Training and Education 2016 list authoritative intergovernmental instruments relevant to reporting on this topic.

The additional references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on closure and rehabilitation by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.9 Economic impacts

An organization’s impacts on the economy refers to how the value it generates affects economic systems, for example, as a result of its procurement practices and employment of workers. Infrastructure investments and services supported by an organization can also have impacts on a community’s well-being and long-term development. This topic covers economic impacts at local, national, and global levels. 

Mining activities can be an important source of investment and income for local communities, countries, and regions. Mineral extraction offers considerable opportunities for producing countries and their communities to gain lasting economic benefits, which, if well managed, can transform national economies, reduce poverty and inequality, and improve people’s well-being. Economic contributions can manifest locally through procurement spending, capacity building, or employment provision, and at national, subnational, or regional levels through taxes and royalties (see also topic 14.23 Payments to governments).  

Impacts vary according to the scale and duration of operations, interactions with other economic activities, the effectiveness of resource governance by local and national governments, and local procurement and employment practices used by the organization. At a global scale, the sector’s contributions are prevalent through, for example, the provision of minerals for the low-carbon transition, essential infrastructure and buildings, and food production. 

The economic impacts of mining vary depending on the specific phase of the mining project. During mine development, infrastructure investments are at their peak, procurement of goods and services are high, and many workers are needed. When the mine is in operation, economic impacts are mainly generated through procurement spending, employment, community investments, taxes, and other payments to governments. Mine closure and post-mining phases require economic restructuring, characterized by out-migration, reduced government revenues, and a limited need for infrastructure, goods, and services.  

Through local procurement, mining organizations can foster employment and raise demand for goods and services. Workers of mining organizations and their suppliers also drive local economic growth by spending their earnings. Long-lasting positive impacts can be generated by capacity building of suppliers, along with training and skill transfer to the community. Mine construction and operation can involve the development of infrastructure, such as roads, railways, and other transport networks, that local communities can use. Production linkages with other sectors can also drive economic diversification and community development.  

The extent to which local communities benefit from mining activities depends on their existing development and industrialization levels, their capacity to provide qualified workers to meet new employment opportunities, and the commitment of organizations in the sector to train local workers. The net employment impact of mining also depends on how existing jobs in other sectors are affected and the organization's employment practices (see also topic 14.17 Employment practices). For example, using a fly-in fly-out work arrangement to supply workers can reduce the employment opportunities available to local communities, detracting from the potential economic benefits at the local level. In places where women are traditionally responsible for meeting the subsistence needs of families and jobs are mostly occupied by men, this can result in increased domestic and community-based workload for women [164]. These impacts can exacerbate economic disparities and gender inequalities, especially if benefit-sharing from mining is separated from the local context and community needs (see also topic 14.10 Local communities).  

Changes in technology in industrial-scale mining, such as the increased use of automation and robotics, can affect economic impacts and benefit sharing. While these changes can introduce new skills and increase work opportunities for women and other underrepresented groups, they can also reduce the number of workers needed for mining activities.  

Additionally, a poorly planned or executed mine closure process can generate legacy impacts with economic consequences for communities and governments (see also topic 14.8 Closure and rehabilitation).  

Lasting negative impacts can be mitigated at the local level in consultation with the community. This can be achieved by incorporating inclusive development, benefit-sharing mechanisms, and impact-driven community development programs aimed at the structural transformation of local economies. Mining organizations can also promote economic inclusion by recruiting or using suppliers that recruit workers from less represented or marginalized groups, including women-owned enterprises (see also topic 14.21 Non-discrimination and equal opportunity). Extending skills development to workers who are not employees and the local community can also contribute to positive impacts and promote a just transition after a mine is closed. 

Reporting on economic impacts

If the organization has determined economic impacts to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.

References and resources

GRI 201: Economic Performance 2016 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on economic impacts by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography. 

Topic 14.10 Local communities

Local communities comprise individuals living or working in areas that are affected or that could be affected by an organization’s activities. An organization is expected to conduct community engagement to understand the vulnerabilities and priorities of local communities and how they may be affected by the organization’s activities. This topic covers socioeconomic, cultural, health, and human rights impacts on local communities. 

Mining activities can create social and economic benefits for local communities through local procurement and employment, taxes and other payments to governments, infrastructure investments and services supported, and community development programs (see also topics 14.9 Economic impacts and 14.23 Payments to governments). However, mining activities can also trigger negative socioeconomic, cultural, health, and human rights impacts on communities near mine sites, including Indigenous Peoples, artisanal and small-scale miners, and other vulnerable groups, throughout the life of a mine and beyond closure (see also topics 14.11 Rights of Indigenous Peoples and 14.13 Artisanal and small-scale mining). 

Negative impacts can result from land use requirements that limit the accessibility and availability of land and natural resources, leading to the loss of tradition, culture, or cultural identity (see also topic 14.12 Land and resource rights). Mining activities can damage tangible cultural heritage, including sites and artifacts, as well as intangible forms of culture, such as lifestyles and knowledge. Other negative impacts on community health, safety, and well-being can be caused by: 

• exposure to pollution, hazardous substances, and dust (see also topic 14.3 Air emissions);  
• contamination of groundwater and surface water (see also topic 14.7 Water and effluents); 
• traffic to and from the mine site;  
• increased levels of light, noise, and vibration resulting from, for example, blasting and transportation; 
• degradation of ecosystem services;  
• reduced fishing and agricultural yields; and 
• critical incidents such as explosions, fires, mine collapses, spills, and tailings facility failures (see also topic 14.15 Critical incident management).  

Women can be disproportionately affected by the negative environmental impacts of mining. For example, the work to collect water and food in many rural communities is most often carried out by women and girls. Women are also frequently excluded from formal community consultations [179]. 

The influx of workers, job seekers, or others aiming to benefit from the economic activity of a mine can generate social disruption and greater economic inequalities within the local community. This influx can place local services and resources under pressure, induce inflation, and raise housing costs. There can also be an increase in substance abuse, gambling, and prostitution, as well as communicable diseases, which may disrupt the social cohesion of a community. These changes can have disproportionate impacts on vulnerable groups in society, such as the elderly, children, and young people. Women, in particular, are more affected due to the potential rise in sexual violence and trafficking resulting from the gender imbalance of predominantly male workers. Documented cases also show the presence of domestic and gender-based violence on mine sites and in mining-adjacent communities [185].  

Mining can also trigger social conflicts, resulting in human rights impacts. When the interests of the mining organization are at odds with the interests of the local community, disagreements or grievances can escalate (see also topic 14.14 Security practices). Conflict can occur, for example, due to negative environmental impacts, inadequate engagement with the local community, uneven distribution of economic benefits, or disputes over land use and natural resources during mining and post-closure.  

Mining organizations can assess impacts on communities throughout the life of a mine by undertaking environmental and social impact assessments. This can help ensure that negative impacts are identified, prevented where possible, addressed, and remedied on time. Organizations are expected to provide benefits that contribute to long-term development for local communities to balance the negative impacts of mining. For example, community development agreements often define mining organizations' rights and responsibilities to deliver socio-economic benefits to local communities. These agreements may include obligations related to infrastructure development, land and water use, collaboration with artisanal and small-scale miners, and local procurement and employment [187]. In some cases, these agreements can be confidential. 

Meaningful engagement with local communities involves two-way communication that is transparent, proactive, responsive, and ongoing. This approach can help alleviate tensions, improve community relations, and facilitate transparent decision-making processes, which are essential for obtaining and retaining a social license to operate. Meaningful engagement also entails consultation with local communities before making decisions,

including by acknowledging the power imbalance of the mining organization with local communities and providing accessible, culturally appropriate, and gender-responsive information in the local language [173]. By including the voices of women, ethnic minorities, and other underrepresented groups in consultations, mining organizations can actively involve them community engagement processes. This ensures that the information gathered reflects local priorities and promotes the equitable distribution of benefits.  

Organizations further address their negative impacts by establishing or participating in grievance mechanisms and other remediation processes tailored to community needs.

Reporting on local communities

If the organization has determined local communities to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector. 

References and resources

GRI 413: Local Communities 2016 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on local communities by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.11 Rights of Indigenous Peoples

Indigenous Peoples are at higher risk of experiencing negative impacts more severely as a result of an organization’s activities. Indigenous Peoples have both collective and individual rights, as set out in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and other authoritative international human rights instruments. This topic covers impacts on the rights of Indigenous Peoples. 

Mining activities can present social and economic opportunities and benefits for Indigenous Peoples through financial payments, employment, procurement, training, and community development programs (see also topic 14.9 Economic impacts). However, they can also disrupt Indigenous Peoples’ ties to their lands or natural environments, compromise their rights and well-being, and cause displacement (see also topic 14.12 Land and resource rights). Mining can have impacts on the availability and accessibility of water, which is a key concern for many Indigenous Peoples. Mining activities can further damage cultural heritage consisting of tangible sites and artifacts, along with intangible forms of culture such as traditional lifestyles and cultural knowledge. 

An influx of workers from other areas can result in discrimination toward Indigenous Peoples regarding access to jobs and opportunities. It can further undermine social cohesion, well-being, and safety. Indigenous women can be more exposed to risks of prostitution, forced labor, violence, and communicable diseases than Indigenous men (see also topic 14.10 Local communities).  

Indigenous Peoples’ collective and individual rights are recognized in authoritative intergovernmental instruments. Indigenous Peoples often have a special legal status in national legislation and can be customary or legal owners of lands to which organizations in the mining sector are granted use rights by governments. Organizations are expected to obtain free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) before and throughout their operations on decisions that could have impacts on land or resources that Indigenous Peoples use or own. The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples recognizes their right to grant or withhold consent at any stage of a project that may affect them or their territories and to negotiate improved conditions [197]. Therefore, mining organizations are responsible for respecting Indigenous Peoples' rights, independent of governments’ abilities or willingness to fulfill their own human rights obligation.  

Organizations in the sector continue to have disputes and conflicts with Indigenous Peoples over land ownership and rights. Documented cases show an absence of good faith consultations and undue pressure on Indigenous Peoples to accept projects, with opposition to such projects sometimes leading to violence or death [201]. Mining organizations can foster positive relations with Indigenous Peoples through consent-based consultation, mutually beneficial agreements, and transparent engagement practices. Direct benefits, including financial payments, are often registered through benefit-sharing agreements to formalize expectations on both sides. Mining organizations can utilize grievance mechanisms, tailored to community needs, to address concerns and provide remedy.

Reporting on rights of Indigenous Peoples

If the organization has determined rights of Indigenous Peoples to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector. 

References and resources 

GRI 411: Rights of Indigenous Peoples 2016 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on rights of Indigenous Peoples by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.12 Land and resource rights

Land and resource rights encompass the rights to use, manage and control land, fisheries, forests, and other natural resources. An organization’s impacts on the availability and accessibility of these can affect local communities and other users. This topic covers impacts from an organization’s use of land and natural resources on human rights and tenure rights, including from resettlement of local communities. 

Mining activities require large areas of land for prospecting, exploration, extraction, waste storage, processing, transportation, and distribution. When adjacent to local communities, these activities sometimes restrict access to culturally significant locations and natural resources, lead to involuntary resettlement, and disrupt traditional livelihoods such as agriculture and artisanal mining (see also topic 14.10 Local communities). The impacts on land and resource rights can lead to unemployment, marginalization, food insecurity, increased health risks, and impoverishment. Impacts derived from land use can vary according to the extraction and transportation method, the size and location of the mine, and the processing required. For example, displacement is more often associated with surface mining. In many cases, vulnerable groups are more severely affected, including women, who are often excluded as legal titleholders (see also topic 14.11 Rights of Indigenous Peoples). 

Unclear rules regarding tenure rights that regulate access, use, and control of land can lead to disputes, social and economic tensions, and conflict. This can be exacerbated by insufficient consultation with and compensation to affected communities. For example, in areas where formal statutory tenure laws overlap or go against traditional customary rules, conflict can be stoked when there is a lack of clarity or unmet expectations between communities and mining organizations. These disputes can be about compensation, access, or documentation for customary titleholders who might depend on their land for food, culture, and livelihood.  

Involuntary resettlement of local communities, including both physical displacement (e.g., relocation or shelter loss) and economic displacement (e.g., loss of access to assets), can result in the loss of social networks, cultural identities, and physical assets, such as schools, places of worship, and cemeteries. Organizations can remediate negative impacts from resettlement by compensating local communities at full replacement cost for land and other assets lost. This can be done by replacing land when possible, providing access to alternative natural resources, or offering monetary compensation for lost assets.  

The impacts of resettlement on livelihoods can be more severe for communities engaged in artisanal and small-scale mining due to the often-informal nature of these activities. In the absence of recognized rights to land and minerals, these communities may not be compensated (see also topic 14.13 Artisanal and small-scale mining). In some cases, community members resisting resettlement may face threats and intimidation, as well as violent, repressive, or life-threatening removal from lands. 

Addressing impacts related to land and resource rights and resettlement requires extensive and ongoing assessment of impacts. This can ensure that impacts are identified and prevented, for example, by avoiding involuntary resettlement where feasible. Measures such as fair compensation and improvements to living conditions can help mitigate impacts and provide a timely remedy. Ongoing, inclusive, and culturally appropriate engagement with local communities throughout the life of a mine and beyond closure, for example, through consultations and public hearing processes, is essential to ensure the viability and continuity of community livelihoods. This includes ensuring that women and other groups more vulnerable to impacts are sufficiently represented. Organizations can also seek free, prior, and informed consent when mining activities have impacts on land or resources that local communities use or own. 

Reporting on land and resource rights

If the organization has determined land and resource rights to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector. 

References and resources

The authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on land and resource rights by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography. 

Topic 14.13 Artisanal and small-scale mining

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) refers to mining by individuals, families, or cooperatives with minimal or no mechanization and often operating informally. ASM occurs throughout the world, but is particularly widespread in developing countries where it is an important source of income and livelihood. This topic covers impacts of mining organizations on ASM operators, and impacts mining organizations may be involved with through their business relationships, interactions, or co-location with ASM. 

An estimated 45 million people around the world are engaged in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM). In some regions, the lack of alternative economic opportunities can make ASM an important source of livelihood and employment for local communities, including for women who comprise about 30% of ASM operators [228]. ASM activities can be formal or informal, and are often associated with simplified forms of mining, limited access to technology, and high labor intensity. ASM can include individual operators, families, and cooperatives involving up to hundreds or even thousands of miners. Mining organizations can interact with ASM at the beginning of mining projects when mineral deposits are exposed and ASM operators migrate to mine sites. ASM might also be present before mining organizations commence exploration and extraction.  

In some countries, ASM is recognized as a legal and, therefore, formal activity. In contexts where ASM has no legal status, it is regarded as informal. ASM activities can nevertheless be considered legitimate when ASM operators show good faith efforts to operate within the applicable legal framework and engage in formalization opportunities where available. Whether formal or informal, ASM is not considered legitimate when it is characterized by human rights abuses, illicit financial flows, or when it contributes to conflict [232].  

When ASM operates without legal status, interactions and co-location with mining organizations can lead to conflicts over land, access and control of mineral deposits, as well as the right to mine (see also topic 14.12 Land and resource rights). Mining organizations may have official mining rights granted by regulatory authorities. However, informal ASM activities may have the support of the local community in accordance with social and cultural traditions or informal customs developed over time (see also topic 14.10 Local communities). In such cases, an organization’s use of security personnel to protect assets can lead to human rights violations (see also topic 14.14 Security practices) or exacerbate conflict (see also topic 14.25 Conflict-affected and high-risk areas).  

The proximity of mining organizations to informal ASM activities can hinder the effectiveness of mitigation strategies for managing an organization’s environmental impacts. For example, efforts to maintain air or water quality may be impeded due to the use of chemicals or heavy metals in ASM. Areas of high biodiversity value that the mining organization has an obligation to protect may also be damaged due to uncontrolled access by ASM operators.   

Mining organizations can become involved with negative impacts from ASM when purchasing minerals extracted by ASM operators. These impacts include lower levels of occupational health and safety and the use of mercury, particularly in ASM gold extraction, which is a major concern for the health of workers, local communities, and the environment. ASM can also involve the use of child labor, as children are often engaged in ASM activities to supplement family income (see also topic 14.18 Child labor). Mining organizations can also be involved with occurrences of forced labor through their interaction with ASM. 

Mining organizations can undertake community engagement and consultation with ASM operators to build constructive relationships. These would start at the exploration phase to regularly identify, prevent, and mitigate the impacts from interactions and co-location with ASM and those linked by their business relationships, such as security providers. Mining organizations can support the professionalization of informal yet legitimate ASM operators by allocating areas to mine and providing capacity building, resources, and technical assistance. Mining organizations can also invest in local procurement initiatives, foster collaboration through buy-back arrangements, and support formalization through multi-stakeholder collaboration with governments and other relevant parties at regional and national levels. 

Reporting on artisanal and small-scale mining

If the organization has determined artisanal and small-scale mining to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector. 

References and resources

The authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on artisanal and small-scale mining by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography. 

Topic 14.14 Security practices

The use of security personnel can play an essential role in allowing an organization to operate safely and productively, but also has the potential to lead to human rights violations. This topic covers impacts as a result of the use or presence of security personnel. 

Many organizations in the mining sector use security personnel to protect the organizations’ assets or ensure workers’ safety and security. Organizations can employ their own personnel but more commonly use third-party security providers, such as private security firms, or engage in arrangements with host governments to provide public security. Security personnel can operate on the organization’s site or along the supply chain and may be present in mineral processing, transport, storage, or at the point of sale. 

Documented cases show human rights violations by security personnel during encounters with local communities or activists, ranging from threats and intimidation to violence. Women are more vulnerable to harassment and sexual and gender-based violence by security personnel. 

While security personnel are deployed across geographies, the risk of human rights violations and breaches of international humanitarian law is heightened in areas affected by conflict, where security providers may be connected to military or paramilitary groups (see also topic 14.25 Conflict and high-risk areas). Risks can also be heightened where mining occurs adjacent to Indigenous Peoples and other vulnerable groups (see also topic 14.11 Rights of Indigenous Peoples). Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) operators can face higher risks of human rights violations, particularly when concerns exist around ASM activities on mining organizations' concessions (see also topic 14.13 Artisanal and small-scale mining). 

Actions taken by security personnel against local community members and human rights defenders can violate the rights to freedom of assembly and speech, and can lead to injuries and loss of life. Incidents of human rights violations associated with the mining sector can be linked to, for example, protest activities by land and environmental defenders against mining or when communities protect their land and resources from mining activities (see also topic 14.12 Land and resource rights) [245]. Human rights defenders are accorded particular rights and protections as outlined in the United Nations Declaration on Human Rights Defenders and other international agreements, but frequently suffer abuses and harassment. Women human rights defenders are often more severely affected.  

Organizations in the sector are responsible for ensuring that security practices are consistent with respect to human rights and international humanitarian law [247]. This involves assessing security-related impacts, identifying situations where impacts on human rights are likely to occur, and working with security personnel to ensure that human rights are respected. Impacts can also be mitigated more broadly by a better understanding of the local context, such as the presence of vulnerable groups and the gender composition of the local community. 

Reporting on security practices

If the organization has determined security practices to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector. 

References and resources

GRI 410: Security Practices 2016 lists additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on security practices by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.15 Critical incident management

Critical incident management deals with the prevention and control of incidents that can lead to fatalities, injuries or ill health, environmental impacts, and damage to local communities and infrastructure. This topic covers impacts from such incidents and an organization’s approach to managing them.  

Critical incidents in the mining sector not only cause damage to the organization’s assets but can have catastrophic impacts on workers, local communities, and the environment, for example, through air, soil, and water contamination, ecosystem and habitat degradation, and animal mortality. These impacts can potentially disrupt other economic activities that depend on natural resources, such as agriculture and fishing, affecting livelihoods and compromising food safety and security.  

Critical incidents in the mining sector can be related to, for example, the release of hazardous chemicals and gases, rock dump and tailings facility failures (see also topic 14.6 Tailings), stope collapses, ground subsidence, landslides, fires, floods, and vehicle collisions. The transportation, use, and storage of explosives used for blasting can result in injury or the loss of life among workers and local communities. Incidents can be attributed to, for example, improperly used or malfunctioning equipment, human error, mechanical errors, equipment failure (see also topic 14.16 Occupational health and safety), and poor management of waste and hazardous materials (see also topic 14.5 Waste) that can result in fatalities, injuries, or ill health. Incidents can also be attributed to mining-induced seismicity, climatic conditions, and weather events. The likelihood of extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, fires, and heatwaves, is increasing due to climate change (see also topic 14.2 Climate adaptation and resilience). Critical incidents in the supply chain can involve, for example, contractors performing on-site mining activities or transportation companies involved in highway accidents while dispatching products. 

Mining organizations implement critical control management to anticipate incidents and define the controls that must be in place to mitigate or remediate the risk of the incident occurring. Negative impacts from critical incidents can be more effectively prevented and mitigated when an emergency preparedness and response plan is in place. The timely implementation of these measures is essential when critical incidents occur. Mining organizations can enhance readiness for an emergency by establishing effective communication channels and engaging with local communities and other relevant stakeholders about potential health and safety risks associated with mining activities. They can also involve these groups in the remediation process to ensure a comprehensive and collaborative response (see also topic 14.10 Local communities). 

Reporting on critical incident management

If the organization has determined critical incident management to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector. 

References and resources

GRI 306: Effluents and Waste 2016 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on critical incident management by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.16 Occupational health and safety

Healthy and safe work conditions are recognized as a human right. Occupational health and safety involves the prevention of physical and mental harm to workers and promotion of workers’ health. This topic covers impacts related to workers’ health and safety. 

The health and safety of workers engaged in mining activities is an ongoing concern for organizations in the sector. Hazards include working with heavy machinery, poor mine structures, and exposure to or handling explosive, flammable, poisonous, or harmful substances. Hazards can be associated with working in confined spaces or isolated locations, long working hours and repetitive tasks. Extraction methods can also determine the severity of hazards, with workers in underground mines often facing higher risks. Additionally, workers in developing countries, especially in remote mine sites, are at a higher risk of workplace injuries and ill health. 

Hazards associated with the mining sector can result in high-consequence work-related injuries. Injuries can result from explosives use, the release of gas or dust in confined areas (see also topic 14.3 Air emissions), electrical faults or fires, the collapse of mine structures or facility failures (see also topics 14.15 Critical incident management and 14.6 Tailings), the malfunctioning or misuse of mining equipment, or the lack of adequate personal protective equipment. Transportation accidents frequently occur in the mining sector, particularly among suppliers.  

Health hazards can be biological, chemical, ergonomic, or physical. The use of chemicals and exposure to hazardous substances, such as cyanide or mercury, in mineral extraction and processing can lead to long-term health impacts for workers. Exposure to extreme temperatures, harmful radiation, and machinery noise or vibration can result in illness among workers. Health hazards also include poor hygiene, reduced food or water quality in mine sites, and workers' accommodation that can result in diseases. Vulnerable groups, including pregnant women, can be particularly susceptible to health hazards in the sector. 

Psychosocial hazards related to common employment practices in the sector include fly-in fly-out work arrangements, long travel times, rotational work, long shifts, night work, irregular working hours, solitary work, living in the workplace, and inadequate rest (see also topic 14.17 Employment practices). These practices can also cause fatigue, increasing the risk of injury. In addition, workplaces characterized by gender imbalance can contribute to increased stress, discrimination, or sexual harassment (see also topic 14.21 Non-discrimination and equal opportunity). Women are often disproportionately affected by remote working environments, inflexible hours, and the prevalence of gender-based violence and harassment fostered by a male-dominated workforce [266].  

In the mining sector, the incidence of high-consequence work-related injury tends to be higher for workers who are not employees, such as contractors. This can be attributed to imbalances in occupational health and safety management systems coverage and the application of safety standards, which may not cover contract workers in the same way employees are covered. Contractors might also be less familiar with workplace safety mechanisms and practices or be less committed to them.  

Reporting on occupational health and safety

If the organization has determined occupational health and safety to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.

References and resources

GRI 403: Occupational Health and Safety 2018 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on occupational health and safety by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.17 Employment practices

Employment practices refer to an organization’s approach to job creation, terms of employment, and working conditions for its workers. This topic also covers the employment and working conditions in an organization’s supply chain. 

While mining can offer well-paid work opportunities, negative impacts on workers can derive from challenging working conditions and ineffective labor-management consultations. Job insecurity due to closures, fluctuating commodity price cycles, and technological advances provide additional challenges for workers. 

Employment practices can vary in relation to remuneration, hours of work, health and safety coverage, training opportunities, social protection, job security, and access to grievance mechanisms. Full-time employees generally have access to benefits that might not be available to part-time employees. Employment terms can vary between local and migrant workers, whereby remuneration for these workers may be unequal, and benefits, such as bonuses, housing allowances, and private insurance plans, may only be offered to high-skilled migrant workers.  

Various activities in the mining sector may be outsourced to suppliers. This practice is common during all phases in the life of the mine, such as construction or maintenance, or for specific activities, such as catering, drilling, security, and transportation. Outsourcing activities could allow organizations in the mining sector to reduce their labor costs or bypass collective agreements that are in place for employees, potentially increasing disparities between employees and workers who are not employees (see also topic 14.20 Freedom of association and collective bargaining).  

Many jobs in the mining sector have complex shift patterns, often involving long hours and night work to ensure the continuity of operations around the clock. This can cause high levels of fatigue and increase risks related to health and safety. The remote locations of many mine sites might necessitate the use of fly-in fly-out or other transportation arrangements. Workers who are transported to mine sites for several weeks at a time and often required to work irregular shifts can experience negative impacts on their psychosocial health (see also topic 14.16 Occupational health and safety). These working conditions can also act as a barrier to the employment of primary caregivers, most often women [276] (see also topic 14.21 Non-discrimination and equal opportunity). 

Transformations in the sector, such as automation, the deployment of new technologies, and the low-carbon transition, are also changing the employment conditions and opportunities in the sector. Mining organizations can support workers, for example, by providing resources for training, education, and the development of long-term skills and capacities. 

Reporting on employment practices

If the organization has determined employment practices to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector. 

References and resources

GRI 401: Employment 2016, GRI 402: Labor/Management Relations 2016, GRI 404: Training and Education 2016, and GRI 414: Supplier Social Assessment 2016 list authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on employment practices by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.18 Child labor

Child labor is defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential, and their dignity, and that is harmful to their development, including by interfering with their education. It is a violation of human rights and can lead to lifelong negative impacts. Abolition of child labor is a fundamental principle and right at work. 

Children face multiple hazards when working in mining, such as falling rocks, explosions, fires, and the collapse of mine walls. Mining frequently takes place in remote regions with limited access to law enforcement, schools, social services, and family or community support, also making it morally hazardous and psychologically perilous for children engaged in such labor. The International Labour Organization (ILO) considers mining and quarrying as hazardous work and one of the worst forms of child labor, the elimination of which is a priority.  

Mining organizations are more likely to become involved with child labor through their suppliers than through their own activities, for example, during the construction of mine sites where work is carried out by suppliers. The specific impacts associated with child labor often depend on gender. For example, girls and young women can be forced into prostitution or provide support services such as washing minerals and cooking. Mining organizations can also become involved with child labor when they purchase minerals extracted by artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) operators that use child labor (see also topic 14.13 Artisanal and small-scale mining). An estimated one million children between the ages of five and 17 are engaged in ASM and quarrying activities worldwide [285] [286].  

Mining organizations can be more exposed to risks of child labor when operating in conflict-affected and high-risk areas (see also topic 14.25). Increased poverty in rural areas due to low employment opportunities and low wages can also drive the incidence of child labor in ancillary or support activities.  

To fulfill their responsibility to respect human rights, mining organizations are expected to carry out due diligence to identify activities and suppliers that are at significant risk for incidents of child labor and use their leverage to contribute to the effective abolition of child labor. Several governments have issued legislation requiring public reporting on addressing modern slavery as part of a global effort. Such legislation applies to organizations in the mining sector.  

Reporting on child labor

If the organization has determined child labor to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.    

References and resources

GRI 408: Child labor 2016 and GRI 414: Supplier Social Assessment 2016 list authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on child labor by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography. 

Topic 14.19 Forced labor and modern slavery

Forced labor is defined as all work or service which is exacted from any person under the menace of penalty and for which a person has not offered themselves voluntarily. Freedom from forced labor is a human right and a fundamental right at work. This topic covers an organization’s approach to identifying and addressing forced labor and modern slavery. 

It is estimated that 4% of all forced labor happens in mining and quarrying [299]. Forced labor and modern slavery occur in situations of involuntary recruitment through trafficking, difficulty leaving the employer without penalty, violent threats, sexual exploitation, debt bondage, deceptive recruitment, withholding of wages, or the retention of identification documents.  

Cases of forced labor and modern slavery are especially prevalent in artisanal and small-scale mining (see also topic 14.13) and in conflict-affected and high-risk areas (see also topic 14.25). Migrant workers in the mining sector are also more likely to work under conditions of coercion. They may be unaware of their legal status, lack valid work permits, and have their passports or identification documents confiscated.  

Mining organizations can be involved with incidents of forced labor and modern slavery through their business relationships, such as with suppliers who may operate in countries with low enforcement of human rights. In order to fulfill their responsibility to respect human rights, mining organizations are expected to carry out due diligence to identify mine sites and business relationships that are at significant risk for incidents of forced labor and modern slavery. Organizations can also use leverage in their supply chains to combat forced labor and modern slavery. 

As part of a global effort, several governments have introduced legislation requiring public reporting on addressing modern slavery, including forced labor practices. In these jurisdictions, such legislation applies to organizations in the mining sector. 

Reporting on forced labor and modern slavery

If the organization has determined forced labor and modern slavery to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector. 

References and resources

GRI 409: Forced or Compulsory Labor 2016 and GRI 414: Supplier Social Assessment 2016 list authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on forced labor and modern slavery by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography. 

Topic 14.20 Freedom of association and collective bargaining

Freedom of association and collective bargaining are human rights and fundamental rights at work. They include the rights of employers and workers to form, join, and run their own organizations without prior authorization or interference, and to collectively negotiate working conditions and terms of employment. This topic covers an organization’s approach and impacts related to freedom of association and collective bargaining. 

Freedom of association and collective bargaining can help improve working conditions in the mining sector, including occupational health and safety, wages, and job security. They address the right of workers to assemble, organize, belong to trade unions or political parties, elect representatives, and strike without interference from their employers. 

Many workers in the mining sector have traditionally been represented by trade unions, with jobs covered by collective bargaining agreements. However, some mining activities take place in countries where workers’ rights are restricted or not efficiently enforced. Restrictions on effective worker representation might exist even in jurisdictions where unions are legal. Workers who join unions might face intimidation or unfair treatment, harassment, payment cuts, or even employment termination.  

Documented cases of interference with freedom of association and collective bargaining in the sector include the detention of managers and other employees, invasion of privacy, non-adherence to collective agreements, and the prevention of trade union access to workplaces to assist workers. Other documented cases include the refusal to bargain in good faith with workers’ chosen trade unions. Union members and leaders have been threatened, harassed, kidnapped, beaten, and, in severe cases, even murdered. Unfair dismissal and unilateral cancellation of collective bargaining agreements are other forms of interference with freedom of association and collective bargaining. 

There can be disparity in implementing workers' rights due to differing terms and conditions of employment in the sector. Contract workers, for example, are often excluded from the scope of collective bargaining agreements and might receive less favorable employment conditions and lower base salaries or benefits compared to employees. Lack of access to freedom of association and collective bargaining can result in adverse working conditions, such as low wages and long working hours, which exacerbate impacts on those already facing work-related vulnerabilities and isolation (see also topic 14.21 Non-discrimination and equal opportunity).  

Trade unions have reported restrictions on temporary workers or workers employed by suppliers accessing the same rights as other employees. In some cases, organizations have hired workers on short-term contracts or outsourced jobs to prevent workers from joining unions. Similarly, migrant workers are also less likely to be covered by collective bargaining agreements or able to join unions.  

According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), all workers should enjoy the right to freedom of association and collective bargaining, and organizations should ensure that these rights are not unreasonably affected. Mining organizations can ensure that workers of all employment conditions have access to grievance mechanisms, often facilitated or partly designed by unions, to help resolve stakeholder concerns before they develop into conflicts. 

Reporting on freedom of association and collective bargaining

If the organization has determined freedom of association and collective bargaining to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.  

References and resources

GRI 407: Freedom of Association and Collective Bargaining 2016 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on freedom of association and collective bargaining by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.

Topic 14.21 Non-discrimination and equal opportunity

Freedom from discrimination is a human right and a fundamental right at work. Discrimination can impose unequal burdens on individuals or deny fair opportunities on the basis of individual merit. This topic covers impacts from discrimination and practices related to diversity, inclusion, and equal opportunity. 

The nature of work in the mining sector, including the conditions, locations, necessary skills, and types of work, can inhibit diversity and equal opportunity for workers.  While the barriers to entry in mining can be detrimental to an inclusive workplace, discrimination within mining organizations can also impede job access and career development, leading to disparities in treatment, basic salary, and benefits. 

Discrimination can manifest within mining organizations and in their supply chains. Discrimination can occur based on age, gender, race, religion, nationality, sexual orientation, or worker status. Individuals from vulnerable groups often face a higher risk of discrimination. They include Indigenous Peoples, ethnic or other minorities, migrant workers, and workers with HIV/AIDs or other chronic health issues. 

The mining sector is characterized by a significant gender imbalance among workers, including senior management. Examples of unequal treatment for women workers include impeded access to jobs, less pay than male counterparts, and discrimination in hiring. Other challenges include the physical demands of mining operations, the effects of fly-in fly-out work arrangements, long hours, and limited parental leave and childcare opportunities. Women at mine sites can also face a lack of gender-appropriate facilities and protective equipment.  

In addition, male-dominated work cultures and gendered organizational norms have contributed to the likelihood of sexual harassment in the workplace, documented in fly-in fly-out worker camps. The remoteness of mine sites can also contribute to gender-based discrimination due to having less access to protective services, legal representation, and law enforcement personnel. Mining organizations can promote gender equity and inclusion in the workplace by, for example, recognizing women’s rights at work, providing gender-appropriate facilities and equipment, and ensuring equal opportunities. 

Local workers and Indigenous Peoples can experience racial and ethnic discrimination at all organizational levels. Jobseekers from local communities are sometimes excluded from the hiring process or might receive lower pay than expatriate employees recruited for skill-specific roles. Migrant workers, especially when low-skilled or working at the mine site on a temporary basis, can face additional forms of discrimination in employment and treatment (see also topic 14.17 Employment practices). Contract workers can also be more vulnerable to discrimination if organization-wide discrimination policies do not protect their working arrangements. 

Alongside accessible and effective grievance mechanisms, understanding how specific groups may be subject to discrimination across different locations of mining activities can help the sector effectively address discriminatory practices. Establishing and supporting transparent workplace policies on inclusion and diversity, such as training workers about cultural sensitivity and non-discrimination, can help foster a respectful workplace and prevent discrimination.

Reporting on non-discrimination and equal opportunity

If the organization has determined non-discrimination and equal opportunity to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.

References and resources

GRI 202: Market Presence 2016, GRI 401: Employment 2016, GRI 404: Training and Education 2016, GRI 405: Diversity and Equal Opportunity 2016, and GRI 406: Non-discrimination 2016 list authoritative intergovernmental instruments relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on non-discrimination and equal opportunity by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography. 

Topic 14.22 Anti-corruption

Anti-corruption refers to how an organization manages the potential of being involved with corruption. Corruption is practices such as bribery, facilitation payments, fraud, extortion, collusion, money laundering, or the offer or receipt of an inducement to do something dishonest or illegal. This topic covers impacts related to corruption and an organization’s approach related to contract and ownership transparency. 

Corruption in the mining sector can occur throughout the value chain, irrespective of the country of operation or the country's economic development, location, and political context. Corruption can have several negative impacts, such as the misallocation of resource revenues and harm to the environment and people when mining projects are awarded to unqualified or unethical organizations. Other impacts include the abuse of democracy and human rights, and the potential for political instability.  

Corruption can also divert resource revenues to private beneficiaries at the expense of public investments in infrastructure or services. This can be particularly critical in countries with high poverty levels where existing inequalities might be intensified. The risk of corruption is prevalent in conflict-afflicted and high-risk areas since increased pressure on resource availability and instability might be exploited (see also topic 14.25 Conflict-affected and high-risk areas).  

Characteristics of the mining sector that increase the likelihood of corruption include frequent interaction between mining organizations and politically exposed persons²², such as government officials, for licenses and regulatory approvals. Other relevant characteristics include complex financial transactions and the international reach of the sector (see also topic 14.23 Payments to governments).  

State-owned enterprises (SOEs) in the mining sector are more exposed to corruption, particularly in the process of awarding permits, procuring goods and services, commodity trading, and non-commercial activities such as social expenditures [325]. SOEs might have less effective internal controls and fewer transparency expectations than public companies and often receive preferential treatment due to their special legal status in a country. Private mining organizations partnering with SOEs are thus more prone to corruption due to their business relationship. In addition to driving profit, SOEs sometimes pursue broader objectives such as community development. However, without adequate oversight, measures for community development might be abused for corrupt purposes.  

Corruption has been identified in the mining sector during the process of awarding exploration and production contracts and licenses. This corruption can have the aim of obtaining confidential information, exerting influence on decision-making, or circumventing environmental and local content regulations. Corruption can also occur in the consultation process when seeking consent and when compensating local communities, either directly or through local governments, which might lack transparent financial procedures (see also topic 14.12 Land and resource rights and 14.11 Rights of Indigenous Peoples). Corruption in these processes may result in licenses being awarded to less qualified organizations, jeopardizing public investments, or negatively impacting the environment and local communities.  

Corrupt practices can also be aimed at blocking or shaping policies and regulations or influencing their enforcement. This is particularly common to land and resource rights regulations, taxes and other government levies, or environmental protections (see also topic 14.24 Public policy). A lack of transparency in procurement practices can have significant economic impacts on host countries and local economic development (see also topic 14.9 Economic impacts). Examples of this can include paying bribes to have regulations or quality requirements waived, receiving kickbacks for securing contracts at inflated prices, profiting from inflated prices charged by an entity established as a front organization, and favoring companies connected to local regulators. 

A lack of transparency on contracts and licensing over mineral resource extraction may obstruct public scrutiny of investments and transactions linked to a project’s negative impacts and benefits, including negotiated terms and obligations of organizations. Fair terms for sharing risks and rewarding benefits are particularly relevant because of the long-term time horizons and widespread impacts of mining projects. Contract transparency helps local communities hold governments and organizations accountable for their negotiated terms and obligations. Opaque ownership structures, in turn, can make it difficult to determine who benefits from these financial transactions. Transparency of beneficial ownership has been identified as a vehicle to deter conflicts of interest, corruption, tax avoidance, and evasion.  

Stakeholders, the marketplace, and international norms expect organizations in the mining sector to demonstrate their adherence to national laws, integrity, governance, and responsible business practices to combat corruption and prevent the negative impacts that stem from it.  

Reporting on anti-corruption

If the organization has determined anti-corruption to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.

References and resources

GRI 205: Anti-corruption 2016 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on anti-corruption by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography. 

Topic 14.23 Payments to governments

Lack of transparency about payments to governments can contribute to inefficient management of public funds, illicit financial flows, and corruption. This topic covers impacts from an organization's practices related to payments to governments and the organization’s approach to transparency of such payments. 

The mining sector can have significant impacts on national incomes, fiscal revenues, and foreign exchange revenues by means of various payments to governments (see also topic 14.9 Economic impacts). These payments include commodity trading revenues, exploration and production licensing fees, taxes and royalties, and signature, discovery, and production bonuses. 

Organizations that engage in aggressive tax practices or tax non-compliance can diminish national tax revenues to the detriment of the public good. Avoidance of taxes and other payments to governments can be facilitated by tax minimization practices such as transfer pricing or illicit financial flows, which include the cross-border movement of money that is illegally earned, transferred, or used [341].  

Mining organizations can receive financial assistance from governments in the form of tax relief, subsidies, grants, or financial incentives. This can potentially hinder government revenue collection and reduce the financial benefits of mining which create economic development. These risks are more prevalent in developing countries as well as conflict-affected and high-risk areas, where the need for public revenue is often higher.  

Reporting on payments to governments can highlight the economic importance of the mining sector to countries, enable public debate, and inform government decision-making. It can also provide insights into the terms of contracts, increase accountability, and strengthen revenue collection and management. On the other hand, a lack of transparency by mining organizations can impede the detection of potentially misallocated revenues and corruption (see also topic 14.22 Anti-corruption). 

When disclosing information on payments to governments, organizations in the mining sector often report aggregate payments at an organizational level. However, this can provide limited insight into payments made in each country or related projects. Reporting country-by-country and by project (or mine site) allows for comparisons of the payments made to those stipulated in fiscal, legal, and contractual terms. It also allows for an assessment of the financial contribution of mining activities to host countries and communities. Full disclosure enables governments to address tax avoidance and evasion, correct information asymmetry, and level the playing field for governments when negotiating contracts.  

Reporting on payments to governments

If the organization has determined payments to governments to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector.  

References and resources

GRI 201: Economic Performance 2016 and GRI 207: Tax 2019 list authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on payments to governments by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography. 

Topic 14.24 Public policy

An organization can participate in public policy development, directly or through an intermediary organization, by means of lobbying or making financial or in-kind contributions to political parties, politicians, or causes. While an organization can encourage the development of public policy that benefits society, participation can also be associated with corruption, bribery, undue influence, or an imbalanced representation of the organization’s interests. This topic covers an organization’s approach to public policy advocacy and the impacts that can result from the influence an organization exerts. 

Organizations in the mining sector can influence public policy development through lobbying and advocacy at local, regional, and national levels. These measures can allow access to government representatives and increase organizations' influence over public policy decisions affecting the mining sector. Advocacy and lobbying can be carried out directly by the organization or through industry groups and other associations supported by the mining organization.  

The sector can use its influence to advance responsible sector practices by safeguarding existing jobs, assisting in community development, and fostering foreign investment in a country. However, public policy and lobbying activities can also be used to secure mining license approvals, influence legislation on environmental and social assessments, and lower taxes and other government levies (see also topic 14.23 Payments to governments). These activities can ultimately shape environmental policies and obstruct sustainable development. For example, mining organizations are under increasing scrutiny for links to industry groups that advocate for policies inconsistent with the organizations’ own publicly stated positions and the goals of the Paris Agreement [349].  

Mining organizations can also influence public policy at local levels to have mining developments approved, for example, by colluding with local leaders while excluding the wider community from decision-making processes (see also topic 14.10 Local communities).   

In some cases, direct contributions to political parties or through intermediaries can be used to gain favor for private sector interests. These contributions can be linked to corruption, especially in areas where regulations on political donations and lobbying are weak (see also topic 14.22 Anti-corruption). Mining organizations can also employ former government representatives to acquire sensitive or insider knowledge about future policies to gain a commercial advantage.  

Increased transparency about lobbying activities and political contributions made by mining organizations and affiliated industry groups can facilitate scrutiny by accountability organizations, the general public, and the media. This transparency enables stakeholders to assess whether mining organizations, directly or through their affiliations with industry groups, have improperly influenced legislative decisions, policy-making, and regulatory approvals.

Reporting on public policy

If the organization has determined public policy to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector. 

References and resources

GRI 415: Public Policy 2016 lists authoritative intergovernmental instruments and additional references relevant to reporting on this topic.  

The additional authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on public policy by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography. 

Topic 14.25 Conflict-affected and high-risk areas

When operating in or sourcing from conflict-affected and high-risk areas, organizations are more likely to be involved in human rights and legal violations and be implicated in corruption and financial flows contributing to conflict. This topic covers an organization’s approach and impacts related to operating in or sourcing from conflict-affected and high-risk areas. 

Many mining organizations operate in or have business relationships with entities that have activities in conflict-affected and high-risk areas.³⁰ In these areas, there is a heightened risk of serious human rights abuses and violations of law, including international humanitarian law.³¹ Operating in and sourcing from conflict-affected and high-risk areas requires heightened due diligence of mining organizations on an ongoing basis. This allows for a better contextual understanding of the conflict and the interactions the organization may have with business relationships to identify, prevent, or mitigate potential negative impacts, including contributing to conflict [362].  

While armed conflict and widespread violence can occur independent of mining activities, the presence of these activities can also exacerbate conflict. The circumstances of extraction, trade, or handling of minerals by their nature have higher risks of significant negative impacts, such as financing conflict or fueling and facilitating conditions of conflict. Specific abuses related to these activities include torture; cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment; forced or compulsory labor; worst forms of child labor; widespread sexual violence; and war crimes or other serious violations of international humanitarian law, crimes against humanity, or genocide [358]. Weak governance structures and the presence of armed groups can also inhibit the implementation of standards and regulations needed to mitigate the environmental impacts of mining. 

In conflict-affected and high-risk areas, armed groups or their affiliates often illegally control mine sites, transportation routes, or points where minerals are traded. Armed groups may illegally tax or extort money and minerals, use forced labor, or commit other human rights abuses. Profits from these activities are often used to finance armed conflict. Mining organizations are expected to conduct due diligence to avoid involvement with armed groups or their affiliates through, for example, procuring minerals from, making payments to, or providing logistical assistance or equipment to these groups [358].  

Although the security practices commonly used by mining organizations safeguard mine workers and assets in conflict-affected and high-risk areas, security personnel may sometimes be associated with human rights abuses. ASM operators, Indigenous Peoples, and human rights defenders, particularly women, are often severely affected by violence and harassment by security providers in these areas (see also topic 14.14 Security practices) 

Organizations are also more likely to be implicated in corrupt practices, such as bribery and money laundering, in conflict-affected and high-risk areas. Where financial flows such as taxes, fees, and royalties paid to governments are not disclosed and remain opaque, these payments can end up financing conflict (see also topics 14.22 Anti-corruption and 14.23 Payments to governments). 

Reporting on conflict-affected and high-risk areas

If the organization has determined conflict-affected and high-risk areas to be a material topic, this sub-section lists the disclosures identified as relevant for reporting on the topic by the mining sector. 

References and resources

The authoritative instruments and references used in developing this topic, as well as resources that may be helpful for reporting on conflict-affected and high-risk areas by the mining sector are listed in the Bibliography.